It has been nearly 2 1/2 years since I last posted an entry here, and I have neither the time nor the motivation to post another any time soon. My interests, along with my profession, have changed quite a bit in the last five years, and I no longer feel qualified to make any kind of authoritative pronouncement about the English language. The entries will remain available for viewing, but comments will be closed. I’ve enjoyed seeing the discussion that a few of the entries have generated, but I’m afraid that leaving comments open invites the expectation that I will answer the questions of anyone who happens to ask. Thanks to everyone who has contributed to those discussions.

To those looking for help with English grammar, style, and usage, I hope you can find an answer in one of the previously posted entries or on another website.

Best wishes,

Karl Swedberg

According to The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, a figure of speech is the intentional departure from straight-forward, literal use of language for the purpose of clarity, emphasis, or freshness of expression.

To define and provide examples for all of the hundreds of figures would take a Herculean effort, and I’m no Hercules. Instead, I’ll offer a few here to get you started and direct you to the Sylva Rhetoricæ website for a more comprehensive list.

• metaphor: a comparison between two seemingly unrelated things. Metaphor can be stated or implied. Example: “Your eyes and the valley are memories. / Your eyes fire and the valley a bowl.” —Carl Sandburg, “Valley Song”
• simile: a direct comparison between two seemingly unrelated things using “like” or “as.” Example: “Sorrow like a ceaseless rain / beats upon my heart.” —Edna St. Vincent Millay, “Sorrow”
• personification: granting human characteristics to something that is not human. Example: “Vine leaves tap my window, / Dew-drops sing to the garden stones” —Conrad Aiken, “Morning Song of Senlin”
• apostrophe: addressing an inanimate object as if it were living. Example: “Oh overshoes, / don’t you / remember me, / pushing you up and down / in the winter snow?” —Anne Sexton, “The Fury of Overshoes”
• hyperbole: deliberate exaggeration for effect, usually for emphasis. Example: “Do I dare / Disturb the universe?” —T. S. Eliot, “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock
• paradox: a statement that appears self-contradictory, but is true. Or, two seemingly contradictory statements that are both nonetheless true. Example: “I have the moon, the timberline, and you. / All three are gone—and I keep all three.” —Carl Sandburg, “Valley Song”
• irony: a contrast between what is stated and what is meant, or an incongruity between what might be expected and what actually occurs. Irony can be rhetorical (i.e. verbal), situational, or dramatic. Example (rhetorical – ironic understatement): Michael Jordan was okay at basketball.

General

The Elements of Style by Strunk and White. This one is a classic, no-nonsense introduction to English style and usage. Some may find it too pedantic, but I think it’s a great place to start. It’s also available online at bartleby.com.

A Writer’s Reference by Diana Hacker. The author does a nice job concisely explaining a lot of principles. Also, it comes with a convenient spiral binding and tabbed chapter dividers.

The Everyday Writer. This book has everything a college writer could want—grammar, style, composition techniques, research tips, guidelines for docementation (MLA, APA, Chicago), and more.

Advanced

Style: Ten Lessons in Clarity and Grace. This book provides very practical advanced techniques that will help your writing sing.

Understanding Style by Joe Glaser. I would rank this in the top five of my all-time favorite books on writing. Almost as enjoyable as Rhetorical Grammar.

Rhetorical Grammar by Martha Kolln. I was absolutely blown away when I first read this book. It presented a a whole new approach to grammar—an approach based on how grammar actually functions, how it is used to achieve various goals, rather than on grammar for its own sake. It has some theory, and Kolln can at times get a little too wordy with the explanations, but if you stick with this book, it will surely improve your writing.

Notes

Please keep in mind that all of these books, with the exception of The Elements of Style, are geared toward the college market and are, therefore, quite expensive if you buy them new. You can find used copies pretty easily at online shops such as amazon.com and half.com.

Also, remember that this is merely my highly subjective list of personal favorites. If anyone else has a book on grammar, style, or writing in general to recommend to a college student, please leave a comment.

• When the definite article (“the”) comes before a word that begins with a vowel, pronounce it like “thee.” E.g. “<thee> elephant”
• When “the” comes before a word that begins with a consonant, pronounce it like “thu” (with a schwa sound). E.g. “<thu> car”

If you emphasize “the,” it is often pronounced “thee,” even when it comes before a word beginning with a consonant. Try saying, “He is the master of English.” It comes out sounding like “thee,” doesn’t it?

One writer on a linguistics mailing list claims that some people pronounce “the” as “thu,” regardless of the word that follows. However, this pronunciation isn’t standard (when followed by a word beginning with a vowel). It might be attributable to a regional or class dialect, but I don’t know for sure.

References

You may find additional information at one of these places:

• The British Council: The United Kingdom’s international organisation for educational and cultural relations
• International EFL Cafe

The following sentence has been supplied by a client to use in a print project.
A) The Application Form a person who wishes to make a claim will use

I know it’s wrong and I think I know how it should read, but what I don’t know is what this kind of dreadful sentence is called. I used to work for someone who, I’m sure, had a name for it. A nonsec…….? Can you tell me please.

I’ve just found the site and am facinated. Thanks for being there!

It’s hard to know how to respond most appropriately to the question without more context, but I’ll do my best.

non sequitur

I’m guessing that the word you are searching for is non sequitur, although I don’t think it necessarily applies here. Non sequitur is a Latin term meaning “does not follow” (which makes sense if we notice the relationship between “sequitur” and “sequence”). In a written argument, a non sequitur is a fallacy that occurs when the conclusion does not follow logically from the premises, or to put it another way, when the evidence does not support the claim. It’s a fairly general term that could apply to a number of scenarios, but typically they involve some sort of claim.

Example of non sequitur:
Steven Johnson grew up in poverty. Therefore, he will make a fine President of the United States.

As you can see, the conclusion (he will make a fine President) does not follow the premise (Steven Johnson grew up in poverty). One could certainly argue that Mr. Johnson’s childhood experiences have influenced his worldview, and that his worldview will help shape his policies, and that his policies will be beneficial to the well being of all Americans—and then provide evidence to support the intermediate claims. But that’s not what is going on in the example argument. We can’t logically conclude that a person’s performance as President is a direct result of his or her childhood financial status.

What’s Wrong with the Sentence

From what I can tell, the example you provide is an “acceptable” fragment—rather than a sentence, per se—because it appears to belong in a list of items that is probably preceded by the beginning of the sentence (for example, with “Every insurance agent needs:”). Although I don’t see anything grammatically wrong with it, I agree that it could use some revision. The absence of “that” following “Application Form” is grammatically acceptable, but its inclusion would help make the meaning more clear. So, the sentence would look like this:

[Every insurance agent needs] the application form that a person who wishes to make a claim will use.

I’m not satisfied with this revision, though, because we still have an adjective clause (“who wishes to make a claim”) embedded within another adjective clause (“that a person who wishes to make a claim”), which makes that part of the sentence a little unwieldy.

Revision Options

There are plenty of ways to revise this sentence, depending on its context. Here are a few options:

• [This is] the application form to use if a person wishes to make a claim.
• [This is] the application form to use for a person who wishes to make a claim.
• [This is] the application form a person will use if he or she wishes to make a claim.
• [This is] the application form a person will use to make a claim.

Thank you for the question. I hope you find the answer helpful. Further questions related to this article can be posted in the comment form.

My mother language is not english, but i want to improve my english communication. I need complete help on english rules and english grammar. please.

Although I’m not equipped to answer this large of a request myself, there are a number of excellent ESL (English as a Second Language) resources available on the internet. Here are a few to get you started:

• A4 ESL: Activities for ESL/EFL students (free English study)
• Dave’s ESL Cafe: Meeting place for ESL/EFL teachers and students from around the world
• Purdue Online Writing Lab – ESL: ESL resources, handouts, and exercises
• Guide to Grammar and Writing: Excellent resource for general English grammar